Responses to Gold

The gold rushes of 19^th century Australia were one of the catalysts which helped transform the fledgeling colony into a new nation. However they also gave birth to many anxieties within the community.

One obvious anxiety generated by the gold rush was the tremendous increase in migration. In the ten year period between 1851 and 1861 migration by sea into Victoria was something in order of 290,000ⁱ. Of this, a significant portion were Chinese, who by 1861 represented approximately one quarter of all miners on Victorian goldfields. The attitudes of the community towards this new wave of 'foreign' immigration could be described as ranging from cautious to openly hostile, and anything in between. The Lambing Flat riots are one example of this anxiety boiling over, as a large mob assembled and terrorised the Chinese camp. Aside from the barbarism of the riot itself, the fact that the Chinese miners were seperated into their own, seperate enclave is an example in itself of the anxiety which the gold rush inspired migration caused.

Chinese miner in traditional garb relaxing with a long stemmed pipe, Daintree, Richard, 1832-1878

http://www.pictureaustralia.org/apps/pictureaustralia?action=PADisplay&mode=display&rs=resultset-3723521&no=2

Another key anxiety which grew out of the gold rushes was the concern over land rights which eventually led to land reforms. Although it is a popular view brought about by the pioneer myth that it was early settlers who subdued and unlocked the landscape for all Australians, it can be argued that it was the land reforms which followed the gold rushes which truly unlocked the land by easing, if not breaking, the monopoly on land held by the established wealthy.

iFahey, Charles, 'Gold and Land' in in Gare, Deborah, Ritter David Making Australian History: Perspectives on the Past Since 1788, Cengage Learning (Sydney 2008) p. 207

Frontier Conflict

Frontier conflict in Australia is topic which has generated much debate over many years. It is topic imbued with much emotion, with strong feeing and opinions on many sides. However, it is a topic which is inherently difficult to unpack. The 'frontier' itself is not so vast, in both distance and time, that it is impossible to think of it as a single and tangible conflict. Rather it includes countless interactions which occurred all over the country within a period of many years. Further complicating the issue is the nature of the frontier itself. By definition, the frontier traces the very edge of 'civilisation' (in this case European civilisation) and as such leads to a distinct lack of detailed record keeping .

That is not to say that discovering what happened on the frontier is either impossible or irrelevent, on the contrary it only serves to place an even greater importance on frontier study. But what the problematic nature of frontier conflict does do is make it hard to place each individual conflict within the framework of any sort of one-size-fits-all explanation.

While perspicacity is hard to maitain in an issue which resonates so loudly and emotionally within the public sphere, it is imperitive to keep in mind the dynamic nature of the frontier itself when considering frontier conflict. Indeed, as the historian Henry Reynolds notes, “the black response to the invaders was more complex and more varied than anyone has hitherto suggested.¹” Trying to tie these complex and varied response into a single, comprehensive narrative would seem to border on the naïve.

Perhaps the key concept which can be taken out of this debate is the uncertain nature of the frontier conflict itself. That is, that each individual interaction which occurred on the frontier be acknowledged for what it is: one thread within the fabric of a wider event. Like Reynold's says: “there was always diversity, contradiction, and competing objectives.”

Natives attacking shepherds' hut, Calvert, Samuel, 1828-1913 National Library of Australia, http://www.pictureaustralia.org/apps/pictureaustralia?action=PADisplay&mode=display&rs=resultset-3716350&no=3

1Reynolds, Henry 'The Other Side of the Frontier' in Gare, Deborah, Ritter David Making Australian History: Perspectives on the Past Since 1788, Cengage Learning (Sydney 2008) p. 165

Europeans in an Australian Environment

Europeans have had an interesting and varied relationship with the Australian landscape since they first set foot upon its shores. While the relationship has changed over time, what has not changed is the impact which the natural environment has had in shaping the identity of Australia and its people.

Early colonisers viewed the landscape as a hostile one, an unforgiving landscape that required taming in order to produce a means of survival. One only needs to look at current-day focus on conservation to to see how much this idea has changed over time. This idea of 'man-versus-environment' is an interesting one, however, as it is central to the concept of the pioneer myth.

The pioneer myth itself grew out of this European experience, as the 'victories' of the pioneers over the landscape were celebrated in the realist literature of the late 19^th century. It became a common theme within the imagined community of Australia, and remains well embedded within the national identity. The myth celebrates many of the qualities which are readily identifiable in the Australian identity. Ideas of mateship and camaraderie can perhaps be traced back to roots within this pioneer myth, as Europeans battled side by side against bushfire, flood and drought to not only survive but grow and flourish.

It can be argued that this pioneer myth has now been outgrown within the imagined community, and it is certainly true that the myth itself has several flaws which make it harder to conceptualise in the contemporary context, particularly when one considers the role both women and indigenous Australians play within the myth, which is to say not much at all. That being said, it would be wrong to discount the importance of the pioneer myth's contribution to Australia's national identity.

European settlement has dramatically and permanently impacted upon the natural landscape of Australia. However, it is clear that the Australian environment has had an equal impact upon the Europeans who settled here.

Henry Lawson (1867 - 1922), by Lionel Lindsay, courtesy of National Library of Australia. nla.pic-an9721119. .http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A100016b.htm?hilite=henry%3Blawson

Perhaps the most influential and enduring of all late 19th century Australian realist authors, Lawson greatly contributed to the pioneer myth

Convict Lives

Who were the convicts? What sort of people were they, and what crimes had they committed for which they were sent into exile thousands of miles away from home? It is a question which has intrigued many historians, and generated much debate amongst them.

As the historian Clark points out, perhaps “the best source for a broad classification of the types of convicts is the Indents of Convict Ships.¹” The question then becomes one of interpretation. Clark himself draws several conclusions from these indents, notably that the vast majority of crimes for which convicts were sentenced to transportation were theft-related. A study of the convict indent of the Pyramus, from 1836, suggests that this was indeed the case, as twenty-nine of the thirty-one female convicts listed were convicted for theft or robbery. Clark also argues that the occupations of the convicts listed in the indents suggests that they were mostly middle-class, semi-skilled urban dwellers; essentially part of what he describes as a “criminal class”.

Other historians have drawn different conclusions from this data. Deborah Oxley contends that the semi-skilled nature of the convicts was a quality necessary for the creation and expansion of a new colony, although she does focus in particular on female convicts.

While many historians have tried, attempting to find a broad classification for all convicts transported to Australia is inherently problematic. The issue lies chiefly in the sheer scale of the enterprise: between 1788 and 1868 approximately 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia² from all over Britain and it's empire. Futher complicating the issue is the changing sentiment on capital punishment which occured Britain during this period. A study of the convict indent of the Hougoumont from 1868, thirty-two years after the Pyramus, reveals several key differences. Firstly, all the convicts listed are male, but more importantly their crimes appear to be much more serious in nature than those committed by the convicts of Pyamus. For example, they include murder, rape, grievous bodily harm and high treason.

Perhaps what can be taken out of this discussion is that the position of each of the historians mentioned bears some merit, so that the truest picture of Australia's convict past must reflect aspects of each.

A Convict Ship, c 1840 Hobart Town

http://www.pictureaustralia.org/apps/pictureaustralia?action=PADisplay&mode=display&rs=resultset-3636766&no=13

1Clark, Manning 'The Origins of the Convicts Transported to Eastern Australia 1787-1852' in Gare, Deborah, Ritter David Making Australian History: Perspectives on the Past Since 1788, Cengage Learning (Sydney 2008) p. 103

2Gare, Deborah, Ritter David Making Australian History: Perspectives on the Past Since 1788, Cengage Learning (Sydney 2008) p. 95

Australia: Outpost of Empire

There several competing arguments in relation to the founding of the Australian colony, all of which centre on the question of motive. Essentially each seeks to the answer to the question: why set up a colony in a relatively unknown, unchartered land so far from 'civilisation'?

Geoffrey Blainey, in his Tyranny of Distance, published in 1966, presented an argument which was both new and controversial. His view was that the decision to create a penal colony in Australia was influenced more by the desire to exploit the resources that the new colony could provide than the need to find a place for unwanted convicts.

To support his argument, he highlights the importance of two resources in particular: flax and pine in the global context of the time, and quotes Lord Sydney to the effect that these resources “would be of great consequence to us as a naval power.¹” Much of Blainey's argument also appears to rest on the concept that the costs and length of time involved in setting up a colony in Australia compared with alternative Northern Hemisphere solutions would automatically prohibit it's selection. Indeed, according to him, “if British cabinet ministers, in full knowledge of these alternatives, selected Australia solely as a dumping ground for convicts, then they must have been temporarily deranged.²”

The problem with this argument is that it assumes that the cabinet ministers who made the decision were logical, rational thinkers like Blainey himself. How he arrives at this conclusion is anyone's guess; it would be interesting to see what evidence he bases it on.

Returning to the original question, the key idea that can be taken out of Blainey's Tyranny of Distance is that the decision to set up a colony in Australia was influenced by a myriad of factors; from over-crowded gaols and the potential for new resources, to global contextual factors for a growing empire, such as the potential for new markets and new presence in the region.

Pine Trees," Norfolk Island. State Library Victoria http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/pictoria/gid/slv-pic-aab73359

1Blainey, Geoffrey 'The Tyranny of Distance' in Gare, Deborah, Ritter David Making Australian History: Perspectives on the Past Since 1788, Cengage Learning (Sydney 2008) p. 39

2Blainey, Geoffrey p.38